Typescript
Introduction
I started this journey into Typescript by taking a ton of notes with Github Copilot X, ”Typescript in 50 Lessons”, and the official documentation. I was able to tailor my experience in understanding how to create types through this method. Without further ado, here’s some notes that I generated (and modified).
What is Typescript?
TypeScript is a superset of JavaScript that adds optional static typing and other features to the language. It is designed to make it easier to write and maintain large-scale JavaScript applications. TypeScript code is compiled into JavaScript code that can run in any browser or JavaScript runtime.
TypeScript provides features such as classes, interfaces, enums, and modules that are not available in standard JavaScript. It also includes support for modern JavaScript features such as async/await and decorators.
TypeScript is developed and maintained by Microsoft, and it is open source and free to use. It is widely used in web development, and many popular frameworks and libraries such as Angular, React, and Vue have TypeScript support.
Static Typing
Static typing in TypeScript allows you to specify the types of variables, function parameters, and return values. This means that you can catch type-related errors at compile-time rather than at runtime.
For example, you can specify that a variable is of type string, and TypeScript will give you an error if you try to assign a number to that variable. Similarly, you can specify that a function takes a parameter of type number, and TypeScript will give you an error if you try to call that function with a string.
Here’s an example of a function that takes two numbers and returns their sum, with static typing:
function addNumbers(x: number, y: number): number {
return x + y;
}
In this example, the x and y parameters are of type number, and the function returns a value of type number. If you try to call this function with non-numeric arguments, TypeScript will give you an error.
In addition, you can declare types for functions separately to the function implementation. This allows you to define a function type once and reuse it in multiple places.
type SearchFn = (
query: string,
tags?: string[] | undefined
) => Promise<Result[]>;
The void type is used to indicate that a function does not return a value. You can use void as the return type of a function to explicitly indicate that the function does not return anything.
Here’s an example of a function that returns void:
function logMessage(message: string): void {
console.log(message);
}
In this example, the logMessage function takes a parameter of type string and logs it to the console. The function returns void, which means it does not return a value.
Type Assertions
A type assertion is a way to tell the compiler that you know more about the type of a value than it does. Type assertions are sometimes necessary when working with values that have a more general type than you need.
You can use a type assertion by adding the type you want to assert to the end of an expression, preceded by the as keyword. Here’s an example:
let myValue: any = "hello world";
let myLength: number = (myValue as string).length;
In this example, the myValue variable is declared as type any, which means it can hold any value. We then use a type assertion to tell the compiler that we know myValue is actually a string, so we can access its length property.
You can also use angle bracket syntax (< >) to perform a type assertion:
let myValue: any = "hello world";
let myLength: number = (<string>myValue).length;
In this example, the type assertion is performed using angle bracket syntax instead of the as keyword.
It’s important to note that type assertions do not change the runtime behavior of your code. They only affect the type checking performed by the TypeScript compiler.
You can use rest parameters to represent an indefinite number of arguments as an array. Rest parameters are denoted by an ellipsis (…) followed by the parameter name.
Here’s an example of a function that uses rest parameters:
function sum(...numbers: number[]): number {
return numbers.reduce((total, num) => total + num, 0);
}
Primitive Types
There are several primitive types that represent the most basic types of values. These primitive types include:
number: represents numeric values, including integers and floating-point numbers.string: represents textual values, such as words and sentences.boolean: represents logical values, either true or false.null: represents the intentional absence of any object value.undefined: represents the unintentional absence of any object value.symbol: represents a unique identifier that can be used as an object property.
let age: number = 30;
let name: string = "John";
let isStudent: boolean = true;
let favoriteColor: string | null = null;
let phoneNumber: string | undefined = undefined;
let id: symbol = Symbol("id");
Non-primitive types are types that are based on objects rather than simple values. These types include:
object: represents any non-primitive value, including arrays, functions, and objects.array: represents an ordered list of values of a single type.function: represents a callable object that can be invoked with arguments.class: represents a blueprint for creating objects that have properties and methods.interface: represents a contract that describes the shape of an object.enum: represents a set of named constants.
Dynamically Generated Types
Dynamically generated types are types that are generated at runtime based on the shape of the data. There are several ways to generate types dynamically in TypeScript:
- Index signatures: You can use index signatures to define an object type with dynamic keys. For example:
interface Dictionary<T> {
[key: string]: T;
}
This interface defines a dictionary type with a dynamic key of type string and a value of type T.
- Type assertions: You can use type assertions to cast a value to a specific type at runtime.
const data = JSON.parse(jsonString) as MyType;
This code uses a type assertion to cast the parsed JSON data to a specific type called MyType.
- Type guards: You can use type guards to check the type of a value at runtime and conditionally cast it to a specific type. For example:
function isPerson(obj: any): obj is Person {
return "name" in obj && "age" in obj;
}
function printPerson(obj: any) {
if (isPerson(obj)) {
console.log(`Name: ${obj.name}, Age: ${obj.age}`);
} else {
console.log("Not a person");
}
}
- Intersection types: You can use intersection types to combine multiple types into one.
Union Types
A union type is a type that can represent values of multiple types. Union types are denoted by the | symbol between the types.
function printId(id: number | string) {
console.log(`ID is ${id}`);
}
Union types are useful when you want to write code that can handle multiple types of values.
Intersection Types
An intersection type is a type that combines multiple types into one. Intersection types are denoted by the & symbol between the types.
interface Named {
name: string;
}
interface Loggable {
log(): void;
}
function logName(obj: Named & Loggable) {
console.log(`Name is ${obj.name}`);
obj.log();
}
Intersection types are useful when you want to write code that can handle objects with multiple sets of properties and methods.
Value Types
This interface definition ensures that this Event must have a kind property with one of the three specified values. This can help prevent errors and make the code more self-documenting.
interface Event {
kind: "conference" | "meetup" | "webinar";
}
Type Guards
You can use a type guard function to check the type of a value at runtime and conditionally cast it to a specific type. A type guard is a function that returns a boolean value and has a special obj is Type syntax that tells TypeScript that the value is of a specific type.
function isPerson(obj: any): obj is Person {
return "name" in obj && "age" in obj;
}
You can then use the type guard function to conditionally cast a value to a specific type. Here’s an example:
function printPerson(obj: any) {
if (isPerson(obj)) {
console.log(`Name: ${obj.name}, Age: ${obj.age}`);
} else {
console.log("Not a person");
}
}
Type Assertions
Type assertions in TypeScript are a way to tell the compiler that you know more about the type of a value than it does. Type assertions are similar to type casting in other languages, but they don’t actually change the type of the value at runtime. Type assertions use the as keyword.
const myValue: any = "hello world";
const myLength: number = (myValue as string).length;
This can be useful in JSX format too.
const myComponent = (
<MyComponent prop1={value1} prop2={value2} />
) as JSX.Element;
Type Aliases
Type aliases in TypeScript are a way to create a new name for an existing type. They allow you to define a custom name for a type that may be complex or difficult to remember.
type MyType = {
prop1: string;
prop2: number;
};
const myVar: MyType = { prop1: 'hello', prop2: 42 };
function myFunc(param: MyType) {
// function body
}
Type aliases can also be used with union types, intersection types, and other advanced type constructs. They can help make your code more readable and maintainable by giving complex types a simpler name.
Mapped Types
Mapped types in TypeScript are a way to create new types based on an existing type by transforming each property in the original type in a consistent way. Mapped types use the keyof keyword to iterate over the keys of an object type and apply a transformation to each key.
type Readonly<T> = {
readonly [P in keyof T]: T[P];
};
interface Person {
name: string;
age: number;
}
const myPerson: Readonly<Person> = { name: 'John', age: 30 };
myPerson.name = 'Jane'; // Error: Cannot assign to 'name' because it is a read-only property.
Mapped types can be used to create many other types, such as Partial, Pick, and Record. They are a powerful feature of TypeScript that can help make your code more expressive and maintainable.
Partial is a mapped type that creates a new type with all properties of the original type set to optional. Here’s an example:
interface Person {
name: string;
age: number;
address: {
street: string;
city: string;
};
}
type PartialPerson = Partial<Person>;
const myPerson: PartialPerson = { name: 'John' };
Pick is a mapped type that creates a new type with a subset of the properties of the original type. Here’s an example:
interface Person {
name: string;
age: number;
address: {
street: string;
city: string;
};
}
type PersonNameAndAge = Pick<Person, 'name' | 'age'>;
const myPerson: PersonNameAndAge = { name: 'John', age: 30 };
Record is a mapped type that creates a new type with a set of properties of a given type. Here’s an example:
type MyRecord = Record<string, number>;
const myObj: MyRecord = { a: 1, b: 2, c: 3 };
Type Predicates
A type predicate in TypeScript is a function that takes an argument and returns a boolean value indicating whether the argument is of a certain type. Type predicates are used to narrow the type of a variable or parameter based on a runtime check.
function isString(value: unknown): value is string {
return typeof value === 'string';
}
function myFunc(value: unknown) {
if (isString(value)) {
// value is now of type string
console.log(value.toUpperCase());
} else {
console.log('Not a string');
}
}
We define a function myFunc that takes an argument value of type unknown. We then use the isString function to check if value is of type string. If it is, we can safely call the toUpperCase method on value because TypeScript has narrowed the type to string.
never, undefined, null Types
never is a type that represents a value that will never occur. It is used to indicate that a function will not return normally, or that a variable will never have a certain value.
function throwError(message: string): never {
throw new Error(message);
}
undefined and null are both types and values. The undefined type represents a value that is not defined, while the null type represents a value that is explicitly set to null.
TypeScript also has a --strictNullChecks compiler option that can help prevent null and undefined errors. When this option is enabled, variables that are not explicitly set to null or undefined are considered to be of a non-nullable type. This means that you cannot assign null or undefined to these variables without first checking for their existence.
Classes
Classes in TypeScript are a way to define object-oriented programming (OOP) constructs. They allow you to define a blueprint for creating objects that have properties and methods.
Here’s an example of a class in TypeScript:
class Person {
name: string;
age: number;
constructor(name: string, age: number) {
this.name = name;
this.age = age;
}
sayHello() {
console.log(
`Hello, my name is ${this.name} and I am ${this.age} years old.`
);
}
}
In this example, the Person class has two properties (name and age) and a method (sayHello). The constructor method is used to initialize the properties when a new object is created.
You can create a new Person object like this:
const person = new Person("Alice", 30);
person.sayHello(); // logs "Hello, my name is Alice and I am 30 years old."
One of the main differences between TypeScript and JavaScript classes is that TypeScript allows you to specify the types of class properties, method parameters, and return values. This helps catch type-related errors at compile-time rather than at runtime.
Another difference is that TypeScript provides access modifiers such as public, private, and protected, which allow you to control the visibility of class members. This can help you write more secure and maintainable code.
Finally, TypeScript classes can implement interfaces, which are contracts that describe the shape of an object. This can help enforce type checking on objects that implement the interface.
Access modifiers in TypeScript classes are keywords that determine the visibility of class members (properties and methods). There are three access modifiers in TypeScript:
public: Public members are accessible from anywhere, both inside and outside the class.private: Private members are only accessible from within the class. They cannot be accessed from outside the class, not even from derived classes.protected: Protected members are accessible from within the class and from derived classes. They cannot be accessed from outside the class hierarchy.
Here’s an example of a class with access modifiers:
class Person {
public name: string;
private age: number;
protected address: string;
constructor(name: string, age: number, address: string) {
this.name = name;
this.age = age;
this.address = address;
}
public sayHello() {
console.log(
`Hello, my name is ${this.name} and I am ${this.age} years old.`
);
}
private getAge() {
return this.age;
}
protected getAddress() {
return this.address;
}
}
In this example, the name property is public, so it can be accessed from anywhere. The age property is private, so it can only be accessed from within the Person class. The address property is protected, so it can be accessed from within the Person class and from derived classes.
Abstract Class
An abstract class is a class that cannot be instantiated directly. Instead, it is meant to be subclassed by other classes that provide concrete implementations of its abstract methods.
An abstract class can have both abstract and non-abstract methods. Abstract methods are declared without an implementation, and must be implemented by any concrete subclass. Non-abstract methods can have an implementation, and can be called by concrete subclasses.
Here’s an example of an abstract class in TypeScript:
abstract class Animal {
abstract makeSound(): void;
move(distanceInMeters: number) {
console.log(`Animal moved ${distanceInMeters}m.`);
}
}
class Dog extends Animal {
makeSound() {
console.log("Woof! Woof!");
}
}
const dog = new Dog();
dog.makeSound(); // logs "Woof! Woof!"
dog.move(10); // logs "Animal moved 10m."
In this example, the Animal class is an abstract class that defines an abstract makeSound method and a non-abstract move method. The Dog class is a concrete subclass of Animal that provides an implementation of the makeSound method. The Dog class can also call the move method inherited from Animal.
But then, what’s the difference between an abstract class and an interface? Take a look at the following example:
abstract class Animal {
abstract makeSound(): void;
move(): void {
console.log("Moving...");
}
}
interface IAnimal {
makeSound(): void;
move(): void;
}
In this example, the Animal abstract class and the IAnimal interface both describe objects with a makeSound method and a move method. However, the Animal class is meant to be subclassed, while the IAnimal interface is meant to be implemented.
Some advantages of using inheritance instead of interfaces are:
- Multiple Inheritance: An interface can be implemented by multiple classes, while an abstract class can only be subclassed by one class. This can help you create more flexible and reusable code.
- Lighter Weight: An interface is a lighter weight construct than an abstract class, since it does not have any implementation details. This can help you write more modular and composable code.
Interfaces
In TypeScript, interfaces are contracts that describe the shape of an object. They define a set of properties and methods that an object must have in order to be considered an implementation of the interface.
Here’s an example of an interface in TypeScript:
interface Person {
name: string;
age: number;
sayHello(): void;
}
In this example, the Person interface has two properties (name and age) and a method (sayHello). Any object that implements the Person interface must have these properties and method.
You can use an interface to enforce type checking on objects that implement it. For example, you can define a function that takes a Person object as a parameter:
function greet(person: Person) {
person.sayHello();
}
In this example, the greet function takes a Person object as a parameter. TypeScript will give you an error if you try to call this function with an object that does not implement the Person interface.
While interfaces and classes have similar ways in defining object types, here are some differences:
- Implementation: A class can have both properties and methods, while an interface can only have properties and method signatures. A class is an implementation of an object, while an interface is just a description of an object.
- Instantiation: A class can be instantiated to create objects, while an interface cannot. An interface is just a contract that describes the shape of an object.
- Inheritance: A class can inherit from another class or multiple classes, while an interface can only extend other interfaces.
- Access Modifiers: A class can have access modifiers (
public,private,protected) to control the visibility of its members, while an interface cannot.
The benefits of using an interface are the following:
- Type checking: Interfaces allow you to enforce type checking on objects that implement them. This can help catch errors at compile-time rather than at runtime.
- Code reuse: Interfaces can be used to define a common set of properties and methods that multiple objects can implement. This can help reduce code duplication and make your code more modular.
- Abstraction: Interfaces can be used to abstract away implementation details and focus on the contract between objects. This can help make your code more maintainable and easier to reason about.
- Polymorphism: Interfaces can be used to create polymorphic behavior, where different objects can be used interchangeably as long as they implement the same interface.
Polymorphism
Polymorphism is the ability of objects to take on multiple forms. In TypeScript, interfaces can be used to create polymorphic behavior, where different objects can be used interchangeably as long as they implement the same interface.
Here’s an example of polymorphism in TypeScript:
interface Shape {
getArea(): number;
}
class Rectangle implements Shape {
constructor(private width: number, private height: number) {}
getArea() {
return this.width * this.height;
}
}
class Circle implements Shape {
constructor(private radius: number) {}
getArea() {
return Math.PI * this.radius ** 2;
}
}
function printArea(shape: Shape) {
console.log(`The area of the shape is ${shape.getArea()}`);
}
const rectangle = new Rectangle(10, 20);
const circle = new Circle(5);
printArea(rectangle); // logs "The area of the shape is 200"
printArea(circle); // logs "The area of the shape is 78.53981633974483"
In this example, the Shape interface defines a getArea method that returns a number. The Rectangle and Circle classes both implement the Shape interface, so they both have a getArea method. The printArea function takes a Shape object as a parameter, so it can be called with either a Rectangle or a Circle object. This is an example of polymorphism, where different objects can be used interchangeably as long as they implement the same interface.
Namespace
In TypeScript, a namespace is a way to group related code into a named scope. Namespaces can contain classes, interfaces, functions, and other code constructs.
You can define a namespace using the namespace keyword, and you can access its contents using the dot notation. Here’s an example:
namespace MyNamespace {
export interface Person {
name: string;
age: number;
}
export function greet(person: Person) {
console.log(`Hello, ${person.name}!`);
}
}
const person: MyNamespace.Person = { name: "Alice", age: 30 };
MyNamespace.greet(person); // logs "Hello, Alice!"
In this example, the MyNamespace namespace contains an interface Person and a function greet. The Person interface is exported so that it can be used outside of the namespace. The greet function is also exported, and it takes a Person object as an argument.
To use the Person interface and the greet function, you can access them using the dot notation with the namespace name (MyNamespace.Person and MyNamespace.greet).
Enums
In TypeScript, an enum is a way to define a set of named constants. Enums are useful when you have a fixed set of values that a variable can take on, such as the days of the week or the colors of the rainbow.
Here’s an example of an enum in TypeScript:
enum Color {
Red,
Green,
Blue,
}
let myColor: Color = Color.Red;
console.log(myColor); // logs 0
In this example, the Color enum defines three named constants (Red, Green, and Blue). Each constant is assigned a numeric value (0, 1, and 2, respectively) by default. You can also assign string or numeric values explicitly:
enum Color {
Red = "#ff0000",
Green = "#00ff00",
Blue = "#0000ff",
}
Generics
Generics in TypeScript allow you to create reusable code components that can work with different types. They provide a way to define functions, classes, and interfaces that can work with a variety of data types, without having to write the same code multiple times.
Here’s an example of a generic function that takes an array of any type and returns the first element:
function getFirstElement<T>(arr: T[]): T {
return arr[0];
}
In this example, the
The arr parameter is an array of type T, and the function returns a value of type T. When the function is called, the actual type for T is inferred from the type of the array that is passed in.
Generics in TypeScript are commonly used in situations where you want to write code that can work with multiple types. Here are some common use cases for generics:
- Collections: Generics can be used to create collections that can hold any type of data. For example, you can create a generic List
class that can hold a list of any type of data. - Functions: Generics can be used to create functions that can work with any type of data. For example, you can create a generic identity
function that returns its argument of type T. - Interfaces: Generics can be used to create interfaces that can work with any type of data. For example, you can create a generic Comparable
interface that defines a method for comparing two objects of type T. - Classes: Generics can be used to create classes that can work with any type of data. For example, you can create a generic Repository
class that provides CRUD operations for a data type T.
Modules
In TypeScript, a module is a way to organize code into reusable units. A module can contain classes, functions, interfaces, and other code constructs.
A module can be defined using the export keyword, which makes its contents available for use in other modules. You can also use the import keyword to import code from other modules.
Here’s an example of a module in TypeScript:
// math.ts
export function add(a: number, b: number): number {
return a + b;
}
export function subtract(a: number, b: number): number {
return a - b;
}
In this example, the math.ts file defines a module that exports two functions (add and subtract). These functions can be imported and used in other modules:
// app.ts
import { add, subtract } from "./math";
console.log(add(1, 2)); // logs 3
console.log(subtract(3, 2)); // logs 1
In this example, the app.ts file imports the add and subtract functions from the math module using the import keyword.
Decorators
In TypeScript, a decorator is a special kind of declaration that can be attached to a class declaration, method, accessor, property, or parameter. Decorators use the form @expression, where expression must evaluate to a function that will be called at runtime with information about the decorated declaration.
Decorators can be used to modify the behavior of a class or its members, or to annotate them with additional metadata. For example, you can use a decorator to add logging or validation to a method, or to mark a property as required.
Here’s an example of a decorator in TypeScript:
function log(target: any, key: string, descriptor: PropertyDescriptor) {
const originalMethod = descriptor.value;
descriptor.value = function (...args: any[]) {
console.log(`Calling ${key} with arguments: ${JSON.stringify(args)}`);
const result = originalMethod.apply(this, args);
console.log(`Result of ${key}: ${JSON.stringify(result)}`);
return result;
};
return descriptor;
}
class Calculator {
@log
add(a: number, b: number) {
return a + b;
}
}
const calculator = new Calculator();
console.log(calculator.add(1, 2)); // logs "Calling add with arguments: [1,2]" and "Result of add: 3"
In this example, the log function is a decorator that takes three arguments: the target object (the class prototype), the name of the decorated method (add), and a descriptor object that describes the method. The log function modifies the behavior of the method by adding logging statements before and after the original method is called.
The Calculator class has a method add that is decorated with the @log decorator. When the add method is called, the log decorator is executed, which logs the arguments and result of the method.
Similarities can occur on the class level. For example, in this following example, you can write a logger for instantiation.
function log(target: any) {
console.log(`Creating instance of ${target.name}`);
}
@log
class Calculator {
add(a: number, b: number) {
return a + b;
}
}
const calculator = new Calculator(); // logs "Creating instance of Calculator"
console.log(calculator.add(1, 2)); // logs 3